Today, the act of voting is considered sacrosanctly private, safeguarded by the curtain of a voting booth and the security of a sealed ballot box. However, for the first two centuries of American democracy, the right to vote was not only restricted to a select group of citizens (primarily white, male property owners), but it was also a public declaration.

This practice, known as viva voce (Latin for “by living voice”), meant voters did not use paper ballots. Instead, they would walk up to a table of election officials, candidates, and community members, and audibly announce their chosen candidate to be recorded in a poll book. This tradition persisted in some parts of the United States until the very end of the 19th century.

The Colonial Rationale: Accountability

Inherited from European parliamentary customs, the viva voce method was rooted in the idea that a vote was a public trust, not a private preference. Proponents of the system believed that voting aloud encouraged civic virtue and accountability.

A voter was expected to stand by his choice publicly, proving he was not swayed by private interest but was committed to the common good. Elections were often boisterous, festive social occasions, where neighbors and rivals alike witnessed the official recording of every vote.

The Dark Side of Public Voting

While the system promoted public engagement, it created a host of problems that eventually doomed it. Because every vote was openly known, viva voce voting was deeply susceptible to intimidation, coercion, and corruption.

• Patronage and Pressure: Landowners, employers, and political bosses could stand near the polls, watching—and recording—how their tenants, employees, or debtors voted. A vote against the prevailing local power could lead to severe social or economic consequences.
• Bribery: The public nature made outright bribery and the dispensing of goods and services on Election Day highly effective. A candidate or faction could easily confirm that a voter had delivered on their promise.
• Reinforced Hierarchy: Since only a privileged minority could vote, and their votes were public, the system reinforced the control of local elites and maintained existing social and political hierarchies.

The Slow March to Secrecy

The push to replace voice voting began in the mid-19th century as democratic ideals expanded and concerns over widespread voter fraud and intimidation grew. Reformers saw the need for a mechanism that protected the independence of the voter.

The solution came in the form of the Australian ballot, or secret ballot, which was introduced to the U.S. in the late 1880s. This method required the government, not the political parties, to print uniform ballots, and crucially, guaranteed the voter privacy while casting their selection.

The transition was gradual, but once adopted, the secret ballot quickly became the national standard. The final stand for public voting came in 1891, when Kentucky—the last state to hold onto the tradition—finally abolished viva voce voting, ushering in the era of true ballot secrecy across the nation.

The abandonment of the public vote marked a defining moment in American democracy, shifting the focus of electoral integrity from public accountability to the fundamental protection of the voter’s private choice.